Wednesday, October 8, 2008

Thursday, October 2, 2008

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY AT A GLANCE


CHAPTER 1 (I) INDIA PHYSICAL FEATURES

Geographical Set Up: India takes its standard time from the meridian of 82 30 E, which is 5 ½ hours ahead of Greenwich Mean time ( 0 longitude).Pakistan time is 5 hours ahead of GMT and Bangladesh time is 6 hours ahead of GMT.

Significance of Location: Barring the plateau of Baluchistan (which form part of Pakistan), the two great ranges of Sulaiman and Kirthar cut it off from the west. Along the north, the great mountain wall formed by the Hindukush, Karakoram and the Himalayas, which is difficult to cross, cuts it off from the rest of the continent. Similarly, the southward of-shoots of the Eastern Himalayas separate it from Russia. The tropical monsoon climate of India, which ensures a fair supply of moisture and forms the basis of farming in India, is also a result of its location in the southern part of Asia. Since the opening of Suez Canal (1867) India’s distance from Europe has been reduced by 7,000km. It thus bridges the space between the highly industrialized nation of the west and the semi-arid, and south-western Asia and the most fertile and populated regions in the south-east and far-east countries.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS OF INDIA

S.NO

UNITS

AREA KM (Sq) (appro)

% OF TOTAL AREA

01

Northern mountains

578,000

17.9

02

Great Plains

550,000

17.1

03

Thar Desert

175,000

5.4

04

Central Highlands

336,000

10.4

05

Peninsular Plateaus

1,241,000

38.5

06

Coastal Plains

335,000

10.4

07

Islands

8,300

0.3

The Trans Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas: The largest glaciers are Hispar and Batura (over 57 km long) of Hunza Valley and Biafo and Baltaro (60 km long) of Shigar Valley. The Siachen of Nubra Valley is the longest with a length of over 72 km.The Purvachal or the Eastern Hills: In the east after crossing the Cihang gorge the Himalayas bend towards south forming a series of hills running through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and eastern Assam and form the boundary between India and Burma. Brahmaputra rivers divide Himalayas into three sections: the main Himalayas, the northwest Himalayas and the southeast Himalayas. The main Himalayas running from the Pamir Plateau in the northwest to Arunachal Pradesh in the southeast are the youngest mountains in the world. The highest peak of the word, the Mount Everst(8,884m, named after Sir George Everst). There are about 140 peaks in the Himalayas whose elevation is more than the Mount Blanc (4,810m),the highest peak of the Alps. The three mountain ranges: the Himadri in the north(the greater Himalayas)the Himachal in the middle(the lesser Himalayas) and the Siwalik(the Outer Himalayas),facing thr palins of India. The Himadri is of grat elevations (6,000m) which remains covered with everlasting snows. The Siwalik have some flat-floored structural valleys knowns as duns. Dehradun is well-known. Between the Himadri and the Himachal are some broad synclincal valleys. We also classify them as Punjab Himalayas, Kumayun, Assam Nepal and Northern.

Significance of Himalayas: (i) Physical Barriers (ii) Birthplace of Rivers (iii) Influence on climate (iv) Flora and Fauna (v) Mineral Resources (vi) Economic Resources (vii) Tourist

II The Great Northern Plains:

Lies between the great Himalayas in the North and the plateau of Peninsular India in the south. Nearly 2400 km long around 250-320 km broad, the most extensive plan indeed. It is said that this region was once a vast depression, filled with silt – brought down by the three Himalayas River, namely the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra and their numerous tributaries. It contains some of the richest soils. The bhangar refers to the upland formed by deposition of older alluvium in the river beds and the Khadar are lowlands formed by deposition of detritus of new alluvium in the river beds.

Bhabar and Terai: Includes those regions where the Himalayas and other hilly regions join the plains. Coarse sand and pebbles are deposited. Bhabar lands are narrower in the east and extensive in the western and north-western hilly. Water converts large areas along the river into swamps known as Terai.

The Western or Rajasthan Plains: are known as Marusthali of Thar and the adjoining Bagar areas to the west of Aravalli. Luni whose water is sweet in the upper reaches and saltish by the time is reaches the sea. The several salt lakes in the region such as the Sambhar, Degana, Kuchaman and Didwana; from which table salt is obtained. In most of the region shifting sand dunes occur.

The Punjab-Haryana Plain: These plains owe their formation to the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi rivers. Many low lying flood plains (called bets) are found here. The Bari Doab between Ravi and Beas rivers, the Bist Doab between the Beas and Sutlej and the Malwa plain are relatively more fertile plain.

The Ganga Plain: The Ganga-Yamuna Doab comprising the Rohilkhand and the Avadh Plain is the tile area that is drained by the tributaries of Ganga.

The North Bengal Plains: the Plains extending from the foot of Eastern Himalayas to the northern limb of Bengal basin cover an area of 23,000km2.

Brahmaputra Plains: This is a low level plain, rarely more than 80km broad, surround by High Mountain on all sides except on the west.

Significance of the Great Plains: Riverine region, Fertile soil, favorable climate, flat surface, constructions of roads, extensive system of irrigation.

The Peninsular Plateau: oldest structure of the Indian subcontinent whose slow and steady movement towards north and north-east has been responsible for creation of the Himalayas and the Northern Plains in place of the Tethys sea of geological time. It is marked of from the Indo-Gangetic plain by the mountain and hill ranges such as the Vindhyas, the satpura, and Mahadeo, Maikal, and Sarguja ranges with the average height is usually divided into two major subdivisions with the Narmada valley as the line of demarcation. The region north of the Narmada valley is known as the Central Highlands and in south of the Narmada valley lies the Deccan Plateau.

III The Central Highlands:

Old Aravalli Mountain on the west and the Vindhyas on the south. This region slopes northward to the Ganga plains. The western part of the Central highlands is known as the Malwa Plateau. The Central part has a number of small plateaus like those of Rewa, Baghelkhand and Bundlekhand. The eastern part of the Central Highlands comprises the Chotanagpur plateau.

The Deccan Plateau: The Deccan Plateau extends from the vindhyas to the southern tip of the Peninsula. This triangle plateau is at its widest in the north. The Vindhya Range and its eastern extension namely Mahadev hills Kaimuir Hills and Maikal Range from its northern edge. Western Ghats are known by different regional names such as the Sahyadris in Maharastra and Karnataka, the niligris in Tamil Nadu and Annamalai and the Cardamon hill along the Kerala and Tamil nadu border. The elevation of the ghats increases towards the south. The highest peak, Anaimudi (2,695 m) is in Kerala. The most important gap in the Western Ghats is the Palghat gap which links Tamil Nadu with Kerala. The Bhorghat and the Thalghat are other gaps lying in Maharastra state.

Eastern Ghats: These hills rise steeply from the Coromandel coastal plain. The Eastern Ghats are well developed in the region between the Godavari and Mahanadi rivers. The Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats converge in the Nilgiri hills. Dodda Betta (2,637 m) is the highest peak in the Nilgiri hills.

Significance of Peninsular Plateau: (i) Geological richness (ii) Sources of Irrigation and hydroelectricity (iii) Agricultural Resources (iv) Forest Resources (v) Rich Fauna

(vi) Cultural Influences.

IV THE COASTAL PLAINS AND ISLANDS

The Coastal plains: The Peninsular plateau is bounded by coastal plains on the east and west. There is wide difference between the eastern and western coastal plain. The west coast is narrower but wet. East coast much wider but relatively dry. A number of river deltas occur on the east coast. The deltas of east coast from the ‘granary’ of the five southern states- Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Pondicherry. The western coastal strips which have a large number of lagoons and back waters on other hand are noted for spices, areca nuts, coconuts palms etc.

Western coastal Plain: These lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian seas and stretch from Kutch in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. The Gujarat plain is a broad and flat plain. The Kutch Peninsula, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Cambay. The Kathiawar Peninsula, also known as Saurashtra which lies to the south of Kutch, is also a plain level area except for some hills rising into Mount Girnar. Sun-divided regionally into the Konkan coast in Maharastra Canara coast in Karnataka and Malabar Coast in Kerala.

Eastern Coastal Plain: The eastern coastal low lands extend from the mouth of the Ganga to Kanyakumari. The northern half is called Northern Circars or Kalinga coast, while the southern half is known as the Coromandal coast. The border part is the Carnatic region, which is about 480 km wide. They are not suitable for harbours as their mouths being full of sit.

Significance of Coastal plains: (i) Harbours (ii) Specialized crops (iii) Fisheries and Navigation (iv) Economic Influence (v) Historical Importance

V ISLANDS

1.Bay of Bengal Islands: The Andaman & Nicobar group of islands are separated by 10 Degree channel. These islands have been formed by extension of tertiary mountain chain of Arakan Yoma. The Andaman group of island is divided into 3 major groups’ viz., North Andaman, Middle Andaman and south Andaman, collectively called Great Andamans. Little Andaman is separated from Great Andamans by Duncan passage. The Nicobar group of islands of which Great Nicobar is largest and southern most one. Saddle peak situated in Andaman Islands is the highest peak of Andaman & Nicobar group.

The Dhuliar peak is the highest peak of Nicobar group of islands.More habitable and different origin thanofArabian sea islands. Barran island is dormant volcano and Narcondam island is extinct volcano.

2) Lakshwadeep islands: Coral- More Muslim population and have fringing reefs. They are 25 small island groups. The island’s north is known as Amindivi and spot is Cannonore island. Extreme south is Minicoy islands which is largest.

CHAPTER 2 CLIMATE REGIONS

1. Tropical Rainy climate Region: This region has consistently even temperature, which stays above 18 C even in December, April, and May are the hottest months, the temperature varying from 18 C to 27 C. July and August are the coolest months, which copious rainfall. The average rainfall exceeds 250cm, which encourages wet evergreen forests. The western coastal strip, Western Ghats, south of Bombay, Meghalaya, western Nagaland and Tripura come in this climatic region.

2. Tropical Savanna Region: The chief feature of this climate is the long dry period. Temperature even in winter stay above 18 C, and in summer may even go up to 46 c. Rainfall, except in the southeastern parts, is in summer and averages about 100cm. In the south eastern parts, the retreating monsoons bring sufficient rains. A major part of the southern peninsula, except the arid tract lying east of the Western Ghats, northeastern Gujarat, south Bihar, major parts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, northern Andhra Pradesh, eastern Maharastra, and eastern TamilNadu coast come under this region.

3. Tropical Steppe Region: The average temperature is over 27 C, the lowest temperature being about 23 C April and May are the hottest months, when temperature may rise over 30 C. Average rainfall being less than 75cm, the region comprises a part of the famine zone of the country. The southwest monsoons bring rain to this region. The region comprises the rain shadow areas lying east of the Western Ghats and covers Karnataka, interior TamilNadu, western Andhra Pradesh and central Maharastra,

4. Sub-Tropical Steppe Region: The average temperature rises over 27 C and as high 48 C is recorded during summer. Rainfall from the southwest monsoon averages between 50 to 75 cm. It often fails, leading to widespread drought conditions. This region comprises tracts stretching and encompassing western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat.

5. Tropical Desert Region: The summer Temperature rises over 48 C, while in winter it goes down to 1 C. May and June are the hottest months. Average rainfall is 12.5 cm and very unreliable. Excessive evaporation during summer and intense cold during winter hinder crop production except through river irrigation. Western Rajasthan and parts of Kutch, which are purely sandy plains, come in this region.

6. Humid Sub-Tropical Region: Summer temperatures are 46 C to 48 C. Average rainfall, mostly from summer monsoons, is about 62.5 cm, which increases to over 250cm in the east. Winters are virtually dry. This region is spread over the foothills of the Himalayas, eastern Rajasthan, plains of U.P, Bihar, northern Bengal, part of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

7. Mountain Region: Average temperature in June is 15 C to 17 C, in winter it goes below 8 C. On the northern slopes of the Himalayas, the rainfall is scanty, about 8-10 cm, but the western slopes enjoy a heavy rainfall of over 250 cm. The entire Himalayan belt comprising both the trans-Himalayas and the main Himalayas come under this region.

CHAPTER 3 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Peninsula plateau is roughly triangular in shape with base coinciding with southern edge of the great edge of the Great Plains. It covers a total area of 160,000km 2. (About half of total land area of the country)

The Plateaus of Peninsular India

1. The Marwara Upland: It lies east of Aravali range made up of stand stone, shales and limestone of Vindhayan period. The upland is drained by Banas River originating in Aravali range.

2. The Central Highland: Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar, lying in the east of Marwara upland and drained by Chambal and its tributaries.

3. The Bundelkhand Upland: To south of Yamuna river between Madhya Bharat Pathar and the Vindhyan scarap lands consists of granites and gneiss.

4. Malwa Plateau: Bonded by Aravali range in the west and Bundlekhand in east and Vindhayas in south. It is an extensive lava plateau in M.P. with black soil drained by a number of north flowing rivers like Betwa, Parbati, Kali Sindh, Chambal and Mahi.

5. Baghelkhand: East of Makal range and bounded by Son River on the north.

6. Chhotanagpur Plateau: It covers mostly Jharkhand adjoining eastern Madhya Pradesh and Purulia of West Bengal. This Plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks with patches of granites ad gneisses and Deccan lavas. The highest general elevation is in the Midwest portion known as patlands (high level laterite plateau e.g. Netarhat). The Plateau is drained by numerous rives in a radial pattern such as Damodar, Subarnrekha, North Koel, South Koel and Barakar river.

7. Meghalaya Plateau: This Plateau has been separated from main block of the peninsular plateau by a gap called Ganu-Raj Mahal gap. From east to west the plateau comprises Gana, Khasi and Jaintia hills and Mikir hills. Shilong is the highest point of the plateau.

8. The Deccan Plateau: This is the largest unit covering an area of 5 lakh sq.km. It comprises Maharastra Plateau, Karnataka plateau and the Telengana plateau (Andhra Pradesh). The general slope is form west to east. Indicated by flow of major rivers like Mahanadi, Godwari, Krishna and Cauveri.

9. The Chhattisgarh Plain: It is the only plain worth the name in the vast stretch of plateau drained by upper course of Mahanadi. This saucer shaped depression lies between Makal range and Orissa hills.

HILL RANGE OF THE PENINSULA 1. Aravali Range: Aravalis are the world’s oldest fold mountain running in north east to southwest direction from Delhi to Palampur in Gujarat. Gurushikhar is the highest peak situated in Mount Abu. Barr, Piplighat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movements by roads and railways.

2. Vindhyan Range: It raises as an escarpment flauting the northern edge of the Naramada, Son-trough. The Vindhyas are continued eastward as the Bharner and Kaimur hills. This range acts a s a water divided between Ganga system and river system of South India. The Makal range forms a connecting link between Vindhyan and Satpuras.

3. Satpura Range: It is a series of seven (Sat) mountains running in east-west direction south of vindhyas and in between the Narmada and Tapi. Commencing from Rajpipla hills in the west through the Mahadeo hills it extends to Makal range in the east. Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi on Mahadeo hills is highest peak of Satpuras.

4. Western Ghats (Sahyadris): The western Ghat run in north-south direction from Tapi valley to north of Kanyakumari. Along the Arabian sea-coast for about 1600 Km. these are Block Mountains due to the down warping of the land to the Arabian Sea. Sahyadris form the real water divide of the peninsula. All the important rivers rise from these hills and flow eastward. The Sayadris up to 16 north latitude are mainly composed of basalt. In this portion Kalsubai is the highest peak. South of Goa Sahyadris are composed of granites and Gneisses. In the Nilgiri hills, Eastern Ghats join the Sahyadris to form a mountain knot whose highest point is Doddabetta (2637 m). South of it is Palghat gap connecting Tamil Nadu with Kerala. South of Palghat there is mountain knot comprising Annamalai hills in north. Patni hills in the north-east and the Cardamon hills in the south. Anaimudi (2695 m ) situated in the Annamalai hills is the highest peak of Sahyadri. Kodaikanal hill station is located on the Patni hills. There are 3 important passes in the Sahyadris:

(a) Thalghat (b) Bhorghat (c) Palghat

5. Eastern Ghat: It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from Mahanadi in Orissa to Vaigai in Tamil Nadu. These are part of the very old fold mountains. It is only in the northern part between Mahanadi and Godavari that Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain character comprising Maliya and Maduguala konda ranges, South of Godawari the broken hill ranges are Nallamalai, Palkonda, and Javadi, Shavroy and Biligiri Rangan hills. Mahendragiri is the tallest peak of eastern Ghat.

CHAPTER 4 SOILS

1. COMPOSITION OF SOIL: Soil is the loose material which forms the upper layer of the mantel rock, i.e., the layer of loose fragments which covers most of the earth’s land area. It has definite and constant composition. It contains both decayed plants and animals substances. The four main constituents of soils are;

(i) Silica: The chief constituent of sand

(ii) Clay: is a mixture of silicates and contains several minerals such as iron, potassium, calcium, sodium and aluminum. Particles of clay absorb water and swell.

(iii) Chalk: (calcium carbonate) provides calcium, the most important element for the growth of plants.

(iv) Humus: is not a mineral, it is an organic matter. It is formed by decomposed plant remains, animal manure and dead animals and is the most important element in the fertility of the soil. It helps retain moisture in the soil and helps the plant in absorbing materials from the soil for building its body. A soil looks dark on account of the presence of humus.

2. TOP SOIL AND SUB SOIL: Two layers namely top soil and sub soil. Top soil(the upper layer) is of greater importance. Good top soil means good crops. It varies considerably in depth and also in character and ability to grow crops. It is only a few meters deep. Million of bacteria, insects and worms live in it. Top soils develop very slowly. It may take years to form top soil suitable for plants, but it can be washed away in a few years if proper precautions are not taken. Sub soils consist of the parent material from which soil is formed. It also contains plant food and moisture but it is not a s productive as top soil. It has to be converted into soil and it may take years to convert sub soil into soil. Below the sub soil generally there is solid rock.

3. FORMATION OF SOIL: The natural processes involved in the formation of soil are

(i) Weathering: process of disintegration of rocks into soil.

(ii) Deposition: process of progressive lying down of rock particles carried by rivers, ice, marine, currents wind or tides.

(iii) Biochemical processes

Soil formation depends upon the following factors;

*Nature of the parent rock, * Climate, * Natural Vegetation, * Topography, * Time

4. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT SOILS

a) Sandy Soil (light soil): It contains more than 60% sand and les than 10% clay. It is easy to cultivate and is favoured for fruits and vegetables.

b) Clayey Soil: It has high proportion of clay. It becomes sticky when mixed with water. A soil very rich in clay is called ‘heavy’,

c) Loam: is rich soil and consist of a mixture of sand and clay. All loamy soils are good for farming and general gardening.

5. MAJOR SOIL TYPES

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies the soils of India into eight categories.

6. ALLUVIAL SOIL: This is the most important and widespread group of soils. It covers about 15 lakh sq.km of the land area in Great Plains from Punjab to Assam and also in the valleys of the Narmada and Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. These soils have been brought down and deposited by three great Himalayan rivers Sutlej, Ganga and Brahmaputra. These soils consist of varying proportions of san, silt and clay. Khadar is the newer alluvium which is sandy, light coloured and occurs near river beds where deposition takes place regularly and bhangar or older alluvium. Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile and therefore the best agricultural soils of the country. The regions of these of these soils constitute the’ wheat and rice bowls’ of India.

7. BLACK SOIL: As the name indicates these soils are black in Colour and since they are ideal for growing cotton, they are also called cotton soil. These soils, covering an area of 5.46 lakh sq.km, are most typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt). The black Colour of regur is variously attributed to the presence of titaniferrous magnetite, compounds of iron and aluminum-Unsuitable for heavy irrigation. Ideally suited to dry farming. Suitable for cotton, cereals, oilseeds like linseed, castor and safflower, many kinds of vegetables and citrus fruits.

8. RED SOIL: These soil occupy about 5-18 lakh sq.km over the peninsula reaching up to Rajmahal Hills in the east, Jhansi in the north and Kutch in the West. In North western peninsula is covered by the black soils and the remaining south-eastern half is covered by red soils- Entire black soil in the eastern part of Peninsula comprising of Chhotanagpur plateau, Orissa, east Madhya Pradesh, Telengana, the Niligris, Tamilnadu plateau and Karnataka. The soil have reddish colour due to iron compounds. It is suitable for rice, ragi, tobacco and vegetables.

9. LATERITE SOILS: These soils occupying an area of 1.26 lakh sq.km- Found capping the flat uplands, and are spread in western coastal region receiving very heavy rainfall – Poor in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime – suitable for rice, ragi, tapioca and cashewnuts.

10. FOREST AND MOUNTAIN SOIL: These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq.km in the hilly regions of the country – described as soils in the making – found in the Himalayas and the other ranges in the north and high hill summits in the Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats and Peninsula – poor in potash, phosphorous – Temperate fruits, maize, wheat and barley are grown in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh where soils are mostly podzols which are acidic in re-action.

11. ARID AND DESERT SOILS: Northwestern parts of the country and occupy about 1.42 sq. km area in Rajasthan, south Haryana, north Punjab and Rann of Kutch. Thar Desert alone occupies an area of 1.06 sq. km. It contains high percentage of soluble salts and a low to very low organic matter.

12. SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS: These soils occupy about 170 lakh sq. km of arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and whole of Maharastra. Textually they are sandy to loamy sand. Saline soils contain free sodium. Crops grown on these soils include rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco.

13. PEATY AND MARSHY SOILS: These soils cover an area of about 150 sq. km in the Kottayam and Allepey districts of Kerala. They are suitable for paddy cultivation.

14. SOIL FERTILITY: The factor responsible for deficiency of Indian soils are: (i) loss of nutrients, largely brought about through the removal of harvested crops, (ii) leaching which occurs under heavy monsoonal rains, causes loss of nutrients, sandy soils are more subject to leaching than the heavier ones and bare soils are more than those covered by plants. Indian soils are mainly deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. These can be supplied to the soils by application of organic manures and fertilizers.

15. SOIL EROSION: Soil erosion is the removal of soil particles by natural agencies such as water and wind and also as a result of human and animal interference.

16. TYPES OF SOIL EROSION: Two types of soil erosion:

(i) Water Erosion: The important types of this erosion are sheet, rill and gully. In sheet erosion thin layer of soil is removed by the water during heavy rains. If the erosion continues unchecked, numerous finger-shaped grooves may develop all over the area as a result of the silt-landen run-off. This is called rill erosion. The rills may deepen and enlarge into gullies.

(ii) Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is mainly confined to arid and semi-arid areas devoid of vegetation. Wind, particularly during sand-storms, lifts and carries away soil particles leaving behind a depression devoid of top fertile soil. Rajasthan and the adjoining areas of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat show this type of soil erosion.

17. CONSEQUENCES OF SOIL EROSION: (i) heavy floods in rivers, (ii) lowering down of sub soil water level, (iii) reduction of soil fertility, (iv) silting of streams and water courses, (v) disappearance and downfall of civilizations.

18 a) SOIL CONVERSATION: Soil conservation is an effort made by man to prevent soil erosion to retain the fertility of soil. It may not be possible to stop soil erosion entirely.

b) Measures for Soil Conservation: (i) Planting cover crops, (ii) Adoption of correct farming techniques, (iii) Terracing the practice of cutting steps in hillside, to create level land for cultivation, (iv) Construction of check dams, (v) Creation of wind break, (vi) Controlling of grazing of pastures, (vii) Suspending cultivation for one season and more so as to help the soil recover its fertility.

CHAPTER 5 THE EARTH’S CRUST

The earth is made up of several concentric layers. The outer layer of the earth’s crust is called lithosphere, which comprises two distinct parts. The upper parts consist of granitic rocks and form the continents. Its main mineral constituents are silica and alumina knows as Sial. It has an average density of 2.7. The lower part is a continuous zone of densers, basaltic rocks forming the ocean’s floors. Comprising mainly silica, iron and magnesium known as Sima and has an average density of 3.0. The Sial and the Sima together form the earth’s crust which varies in thickness 4.8 to 6.4 km, beneath the oceans and about 48 km under some o continents. Beneath the lithosphere is the mantle known as the mesosphere about 2880 kms thick. Composed mainly very dense rock rich in Olivine. The interior layer is the core known as baryshpere about 2456 km in radius is made up mainly iron (Fe) and nickel (ni) known as nife. The temperature of core is as high as 2000 C and subject to extremely high pressure. The crust forms only 0.5% of the volume of the earth, 83% consist of the mantle and 16% makes the core that of the earth. The mean radius of the earth is 6400 km. the average rate of increase temp 1 C for every 32 meters of descent. But in upper 100 kms, the increase is estimated at 12 C/kms. It is 2 C/Km in next 300 kms and 1 C/kms below it.

Name of the layer

Chemical Composition

Volume

(Earth)

Mars

(Earth)

Density

Physical Properties

CRUST

(A) (i) Outer-part of lithosphere

(ii) Inner part of Lithosphere

Sial

1% of the earth

10%

2.75 to 2.90

Solid

MANTLE

(B) (i) Outer part of mantle

(ii) Inner part of mantel

Silica with Sima Wholly Sima

83%

68%

3.10 to 4.75

4.75 to 5.00

Partly molten

Close to melting point

CORE

(C) (i) Outer part of Core

(ii) Inner part of Core

NiFe

16%

32%

5.1 to 13

Plastic state

Solid and rigid because of tremendous overlying pressure.

Composition of Earth’s Crust

1) oxygen: 46.6% 2) Silicon- 27.27% 3) Aluminium: 8.13% 4) Iron- 5% 5) Calcium-3.63%

6) Sodium- 2.83% 7)Pottasium- 2.59% 8) Magnesium- 2.09% 9)Others- 1,41%

CHAPTER 6 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS ACCORDING TO ORIGIN

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS: Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magna) from beneath the earth’s crust. They one normally crystalline in structure. They do not occur in layers and not contain fossils. Some rocks can form a high percentage of silica are said to be acid. E.g., Granite. Other rocks such as Basalt contain a high percentage of iron or Aluminium or magnesium oxides are called basic rocks. There are two main groups:

(i) Volcanic Rocks: These are mole nocks poured out of volcanoes as lavas. They solidify rapidly on the earth’s surface and the crystals are small. E.g. basalt.

(ii) Plutonic Rocks: These are igneous rocks solidified deep in the earth’s crust and they reach the surface only by being exposed by erosion. E.g., granite, diorite and gabbros etc.,

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment accumulated over long periods, usually under water and deposited usually in layers by water, wind or moving ice. They are non-crystalline and often contain fossils of animals, plants and other micro-organisms. There are three main groups;

(i) Mechanically-formed: (a) Wind-deposited e.g loess, (b) River-deposited e.g., clays, gravels, and alluviums, (c) Glaciers-deposited e.g., morains, sands and gravels and boulder clay, (d) Sea-deposited.

(ii) Organically formed: (a) From animals e.g., chalk and coral, (b) From plants e.g., Peat, lignite, coal.

(iii) Chemically formed: e.g., rock slat, borax, gypsum, nitrates, potash and certain limestone.

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS: All those rocks whose structure and appearance have been changed by great heat or great pressure or both. Any rock can be changed into a metamorphic rock. In theses manner (a) State (from clay), (b) Marble (from limestone), (c) Quartzite (from sandstone), (d) Graphite (from coal), (e) Gneiss (from granite), (f) Schist (from shale).

CHAPTER 7 STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

According to Petterssen, the atmosphere is divided into the following five layers:

1. TROPOSPHERE: The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is known as Troposphere and is the most important layer because almost all of the weather phenomena is occurred in this layer. E.g., Fog, cloud. Thunder, lightning, etc., occurs in this layer. It extends roughly to a height of eight kilometers near the poles and about 18 kilometers at the Equator. The thickness of the troposphere at the equator is the greater heights by strong conventional currents. Temperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of 6.5 C per 1000m. This rate of decrease of temperature is called normal lapse rate. This layer contains dust particles and over 90% of the earth’s water vapour. The upper limit of the tropopause is called troposphere which is about 1.5km. Thick. Temperature ceases to fall with the air temperature at the troposphere is about-80 C over the equator and about -45 covers the poles. The word troposphere literally means zone or region of mixing whereas the word tropopause means where the mixing stops.

2. STRATOSPHERE: The Stratosphere begins at the tropopause which forms its lower boundary. The lower stratosphere is isothermal in character, i.e, the temperature in the lower part of this layer does not change with altitude. The stratosphere extends up to a height of 50 km. Afterwards it gradually increases up to a height of 50 km because of the presence of ozone layer which absorbs the Sun’s Ultra-Violet Rays. Clouds are almost absent and there is very little dust or water Vapours. The air movement is almost horizontal. The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called Statopause. Above this level there is a steep rise in temperature.

3. MESOSPHERE: Over the stratopause there exists the third layer known as mesosphere. It extends up to a height of 80 kms. Temperature decreases with height again and reaches up to – 100 C at the height of 80 kms.

4. IONOSPHERE: Ionosphere is located between 80 km to 400 kms. It is electrically charged layer. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Temperature again starts increasing with height because of radiation from the sun. The ionosphere consists of the following ionized layers:

D – Layer: 60 -99 km

E – Layer: 90 – 130 km

Sporadic Layer: 110 km

E2 Layer: 150 km

F1 Layer, F2 Layer: 130 -1890 km

G Layer: 400 km and above.

5. EXOSPHERE: The outermost layer of the earth’s atmosphere is known as the exosphere which lies between 400 and 1000kms. The atmosphere in this region is so rarefied that it resembles a nebula-hydrogen and helium gases predominates in this outermost region. The temperature becomes 5568 C at its outer limit but this temperature is entirely different from the air temperature of the earth’s surface.

CHAPTER 8 LATITUDE, LONGITUDE AND TIME

1. INTRODUCTION: The earth is nearly a sphere and it has no edges. It presents some difficulties in positioning its surface features. To over come this problem, a network of imaginary lines is drawn on a globe or a map to help us locate places. The spinning of the earth on its axis provides – the North Pole and South Pole. They form the basis for the geographical grid. The grid consists of two sets of lines – horizontal and vertical. The horizontal lines, running eat-west, are circular and parallel to each other. The line drawn midway between the North Pole and the South Pole is called the equator. It is the largest circle and hence, is called a great circle. All other parallels get smaller in size in proportion to their distances form the equator towards the Poles. These imaginary lines running east-west are commonly known as parallels of latitude. The vertical lines, running north-south are halves of the great circle and join the two Poles. They are called meridians of longitude. The latitudes and longitudes are commonly referred to as coordinates because they provide systematic network of lines upon which position of various surface features of the earth can be represented.

2. LATITUDES: The latitude of a place on the earth’s surface its distance north to south of the equator measured along the meridian of that places as an angle from the centre of the earth. Lines joining places with the same latitudes are called parallels. The value of equator is 0 and the latitude of the poles are 90 N and 90 S. If the parallels of latitude are drawn at an interval of one degree, ther will be 90 parallels in the northern and southern hemisphere each. The total number of parallels thus drawn including the equator, the letter N or S is written along with the value of latitude. If the earth were a perfect sphere – 23 ½ N –Tropic Cancer, 23 ½ S – Tropic of Capricorn, 60 ½ N – Artic, 60 ½ S – Antarctic, 1 of latitude (a one- degree arc of a meridian) would be a constant value i.e., 111 km – a degree of latitude changes slightly in length from the equator it is 110.6 km, at the poles it is 111.7 km. Latitude of a place may be determined with the help of the altitude of the sun or the Polar Star.

3. LONGITUDE: Unlike the parallels of latitude, which are full circles, the meridians of longitude are semi-circles touching the poles. Meridians intersect the equator at right angles. The meridian of longitude passing through the Greenwich observatory (near London) has been adopted as the Prime Meridian by an international agreement and has been given the value of 0 degree. The numerical value of a longitude varies form 0 degree to 180 degree East or West – be 360 degree meridians.

4. LONGITUDE AND TIME: While rotating on its axis, the earth completes one circle (360 degree) in approximately 24 hours time. In other words, it move 15 degree longitudes per hour. As such the sun appears to be traversing 15 degree of longitude from east to west every hour or 1 degree of longitude in every 4 minutes. Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich (Prime meridian), the time at 30 degree east of Greenwich will be 30*4= 120 minutes or 2 hours ahead of Greenwich time. In order to maintain uniformity of time as far as possible within the territorial limits of a country us taken as the standard meridian and its local time is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The standard meridian is selected in a manner that it is divisible by 15 degree or 7 degree 30’ so that the difference between its standard time and the Greenwich Mean Time may be expressed as multiples of an hour or half an hour. The Standard meridian of India is 82degree30’ E and the standard time is 5 ½ hours a head of Greenwich Mean Time.

INDIAN POLITY

INDIAN POLITY AT A GLANCE

PARLIAMENT

1) Composition: Parliament consists of President, House of the People (Lok Sabha) and Council of States (Rajya Sabha) (Article 79).Called SANSAD

2.QUALIFICATION-DISQUALIFICATION

1.Indian Citizen 2.Completed 25/30 years

3.Elector in any constituency/in the state from which contesting for Rajya Sabha now removed.

4.Do not hold office of profit-office must be public and profit must be derived

5.Not insolvent-unsound of mind-voluntarily acquired citizenship of other State-so disqualified by any law made by parliament or Anti-Defection.. President has to decide disqualification of all case as per Art.103 after obtaining opinion of Election Commission. Under Anti-defection law Speaker has to decide.

Expulsion – Two cases. Absence for more than 60 days also .

Deposit for election: Rs.10, 000 and Rs.5000 for SC/ST.

3.Readjustment of Constituencies: Art.83 – Impact of 84th Amendment.

4. PREVILEGES:

(a) Not to be arrested in civil case without notice. (b) No arrest for criminal cases within Parliament – if arrested outside Speaker has to informed.

(b) FREEDOM OF SPEECH – ART.105

(a) There shall be freedom of speech in Parliament

(b) Member not liable to any proceeding in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in Parliament or any Committee thereof. This applies to person who are not members but have right to speak or otherwise to take part in the proceedings.

CASE LAWS

a) Keshav’s Singh case – search case M.S.M.Sharma Vs.S.K.S. Sinha

(b) P.V.Narasimha Rao Vs. C.B.I.Case.

5)MEETING OF THE PARLIAMENT:

1.First address after election by President 2.First address every year by President 3.Otherwise when summoned by President/Speaker

6.TERM OF PARLIAMENT

5 years for Lok Sabha and 6 years for Rajya Sabha. During emergency it can be extended by one year for Lok Sabha.

END OF SESSION:

(a) Adjournment (b) Sine – die (c) Prorogation

(b) Maximum 6 months gap between 2 sessions.

QUORUM

Minimum 1/10-Procedures adopted in Parliament

Motion of thanks procedures-not against President

7)JOINT SITTINGS: 108

This is permissible in the following cases. If after passing by one house

(a) Rejected by other house (b) Disagreement in amendment

(c) More than 6 months lapsed from date of receipt.

President alone can summon Joint sitting. It is not applicable to money bill. Once President notify no further discussion on the subject. Joint Sittings is permissible even if (Lok Sabha) is dissolved after reconstitution.

8. MONEY BILL: Art 110

(a) Definition Art.110: Money Bill: It relates to provisions dealing with all or any of he matters. (b) Imposition, abolition, remission, alteration of any tax.

(c) The regulation of borrowing of money or giving of money by the Government of India. (d) Custody of consolidated fund or contingency funds of India – payment of money into or withdrawals of money from the fund.

(e) Appropriation of money out of the consolidated fund of India

(f) Declaring any expenditure to be the expenditure charged on consolidated fund of India or increasing of the amount of any such expenditure.

(g) Any matter incidental to any of the matters above.

(h) Money bill can be introduced only in Lok Sabha on recommendation of president.

The powers of distinguishing money bills or not is vested with Speaker. Rajya Sabha cannot reject money bill. President cannot reject money bill. Definitions of Charged and Voted Expenditure.

9.WHO CAN PARTICIPATE

Apart from elected members the following can also participate Art.88.

(a) Every Minister

(b) Attorney General of India can participate in any proceedings of either house or has right to speak in any joint sitting of the house or any committee of Parliament in which he is named as member. He shall not vote.

10.EFFECT OF PENDING BILLS

(i) All bills pending in Lok Sabha at the time of dissolution whether originating in the house or transmitted to it by Rajya Sabha, lapse;

(ii) Bills passed by Lok Sabha. But which have not been disposed of and are pending in Rajya Sabha on the date of dissolution, lapse.

(iii) Bills originating in Rajya Sabha, which have not been passed by Lok Sabha but are still pending before Rajya Sabha, do not lapse.

(iv) A Bill upon which the Houses have disagreed and the President has notified his intention of summoning a Joint Sitting of the Houses for its consideration prior to dissolution, does not lapse, and may be passed at a Joint-Sitting of both houses, notwithstanding that dissolution has intervened since the president notified his intention to summon the joint-sitting of the houses.

(v) Bills passed by both the Houses and sent to the Preside t for assent do not lapse on dissolution of Lok Sabha.

(vi) Bills returned by the President for reconsideration do no lapse and can be reconsidered by the successive House.

(vii) All other business pending in Lok Sabha viz. motions, resolutions, amendments, supplementary demands for grants etc. at whatever stage, lapses upon dissolution.

(viii) Petitions presented to the House, which stand referred to the Committee on petitions, also lapse on dissolution.

(ix) Motions for approval or modification of statutory rules passed by Lok Sabha and transmitted to Rajya Sabha for concurrence and vice versa also lapse on dissolution of Lok Sabha.

(x) Pending assurances do not lapse and are considered by the Committee on Government Assurances of the new Lok Sabha.

11. SPEAKER

(a) Proterm Article 99. (b) Regular – Election/Vacation.

(c) He is next to V.P. and P.M. He is given higher status than that of the cabinet Minister. His conduct cannot be discussed.

(d) When can Deputy Speaker act as Speaker absent. Vacant – Motion for removal of Speaker.

(e) When can Speaker/Chairman vote: - His removal motion at the first instance and not in case of tie.

POWERS

(a) Conduct business and regulate the proceedings of Lok Sabha.

(b) He is final interpreter of provision of constitution and rules of procedure within Lok Sabha.

(c) His decision in Parliament is final.

(d) Can exercise residuary power, which are not provided.

1.No member can speak unless called upon by speaker. He can ask member to with draw from the house or suspend him.

2.Incharge of Parliament. All the messages of the house are sent or received by speaker. He communicate the decision of the house to the authorities concerned. All the Parliamentary committee of the Lok Sabha are constituted by him. They function under his control and direction. He appoints the Chairman of all the Committee. All controversial matters are referred to him for guidelines. Committees like Business Advisory Committee, Joint Parliamentary committee and Rules committee work directly under the Chairmanship.

He presides over joint sitting. (Art.118) He is responsible for providing various types of facilities to members. Lok Sabha Secretariat functions under his control. He is the ultimate authority of the House. However, he is servant of the house and not its master.

.12. POWERS OF PARLIAMENT

(a) Legislation (b) Executive polit8ical and financial control (c) Surveillance of Administration (d) Control of Public finance

(d) Deliberation and discussion – Representative – Creation Educational and Advisory Role. Control of the function of heads-Removal of officers. Leadership and Training – Other Constitutional Functions.

13. MISCELLANEOUS

1) Constituent assembly acted, as provisional parliament from 26-1-1950 and Tr G.V. Mavalankar was Speaker.

2) Present is 14th Lok Sabha. 12th had short tenure and Fifth had more tenure.1,2,3 and 10th served full terms.

3)Ananthasayanam Iyengar, G.S.DhillonBalram Jhakar, and Balayagi acted twice as Speakers. Jhakar served for 9 years from 1980.

4) Among Dy Speakers P.M. Sayeed acted twice and G.S.Swell acted for 8 years.

PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURES AND TERMS

1.Parliament is the Legislature of the Union to make Laws which can be made through the following 3 stages.

(a)Introduction in Parliament (b) Passing of Bills by Parliament (c) Giving assent by President.

2.Bills are classified into Money bills and Ordinary bills. Money bills can be presented with previous sanction of President.

3.Ordinary Bills are classified into (a) Government Bills – introduced by Minister. (b) Private Members bill introduced by any member other than Minister.

4.Any ordinary bill before going to President has the following 5 stages.

(a)First reading - introduction of the bill – 7 days notice – getting leave of House for introduction, and publication in Gazette.

(b) Second reading introducer can make any following proposal.

(i)The Bill be put through second reading.

(ii) Sent to Select Committee of the House.

(iii) Without consent of other house to joint select committee.

(iv) Public opinion be sought.

c. Committee stage:

A committee will be formed which go through each and every provision and suggest modification/amendment.

D Report State:

It will be considered by the House and may reject or modify the suggestions through voting.

(e) 3rd Reading Bill: As a whole discussed and voted.

5.Subordinate Legislation or Delegated Legislation – meaning – 4 Advantages. 1.Parliament has no time 2.They cannot deal technical or specialized matter. 3.Enable flexibility 4.Useful in emergencies and situation.

(b) Control Mechanisms 1.To be in accordance with the Constitution 2.Can be cancelled by Parliament 3.Scrutinised by committee on subordinate legislation.

6)Financial Terms:

1.Consolidated fund of India: all revenue receipts, all loans raised by Government and loans by means of advances, and amount received by repayment of loans – Art.266.

2.Contingency fund Art.267 to meet unforeseen expenditure – at the disposal of President.

3.Vote on Account Art.116: 1.Grant in advance before the passing of appropriation bill.

4.Vote on Credit unexpected demand of indefinite character.

5. Exceptional grant to meet the expenditure, which forms no part of current service.

6. Supplemental grant: additional requirement than amount voted.

7. Additional grant: Additional amount required due to new service.

8. Excess grant amount spent over and above voted.

9. Demands of various Ministries being discussed and voted on each department.

10.No expenditure can be spent without authorization by Parliament.

11.Two separate budgets in India – Railway Budget separated 1921.

12. Budget is called Annual Financial Statement as per Art.112 and it is the estimate of receipts and expenditure of the Government.

13. Amount can be spent from the consolidated fund as (a) Voted (b) charged.

14. Following are charged.

Emoluments and Allowancesof President, Chairman, Deputy Chairman (RS), Speaker and Deputy Speaker Lok Sabha, Debt Charges including interest.-Salary and Pension of Supreme Court Judges, Pension payable to Judge of High Court: Salary of CAG, Amount required to satisfy any judgment decree or award of any Court or Tribunal and other expenditure declared by Constitution (UPSC).

15.Appropriation Bills: Art 114- various demands voted by the house and amount charged are presented and passed- cannot be rejected.

16.Finance Bills: Which authorize taxing

17.Cut: Cuts may be either (a) Economic Cut – specified amount.

(b) Token cut Rs.1/- or 100 etc., (c) Policy cut –

Amount can be decreased cannot be increased.

7) Procedures in Parliament:

1.Question Hour from 11 A.M. to 12 A.M. – Following 3 types of questions are asked (Even to private members)

(a) Starred Questions – to be answered orally and through questions can be asked which are called supplementary questions.

(b) Unstarred questions to be given by writing -no supplementary questions.

(c)Short notice question – less than 10 days notice on matters of urgent public importance.

2Half an hour discussion: On 3 days after the session is over in the evening.

3. Zero Hour– Indian innovation – from 12 PM to 1 P.M.

4. Short duration discussion: Started in 1953 by convention- to be signed by 2 Members and discussion on Tuesday and Thursday – 1 hour in Lok Sabha and 2 ½ hours in Rajya Sabha – no voting – only by motion and resolutions.

5. Adjournment Motion: Attention of the House to urgent public importance- 50 members consent required – discussed for 2 ½ hours from 4 PM – it is criticism of the Government no fall of the Government.

6Calling attention notice-Indian practices from 1954 – alternative to adjournment motion no voting.

7. Point of Order: The House is deviating from established rules.

8. No confidence motion to be brought by 50 members and only against council and not against single Minister – no ground need be satisfied.

9. Censure motion it may be against a individual Minister satisfying grounds. A day will be decided gradually. It is admitted as no – day – yet named motion.

10.Mention under rule 377. Matters which are not points of orders or which can not be raised under rules relating to questions, short note question etc. are raised under rule 377.

11. Motion: A motion is a proposal brought before the house for eliciting decision or expression of the House.

(a) They are basis of Parliamentary proceedings. They can be moved by different persons for different purposes including by Ministers. Government motion relate to obtaining approval of the House for some policy action.

(b) Motions are (i) Substantive motion – self-contained independent proposal – motion of thanks, impeachment etc. (ii) Substitute motion, which are substitute of the original motion and proposing alternative to it.

(iii) Subsidiary Motion: Which are of three kinds Ancillary motion or superseding motion or amendment. No date yet named motion is (1) which Speaker has admitted but no date has been fixed

12.Resolutions. It is one of the procedural motions available to raise a discussion in the House on a matter of Public General importance they are termed as Private Members Resolution and Government Resolutions – Statutory resolution.

(b) Difference between motion and resolution. All resolutions come into category of Substantive motion that is to say every resolution is a particular type of motion. All motions need necessarily be substantive. Further all motions are not necessarily put to vote of the House whereas all the resolutions are required to be voted upon.

13.Lame Duck Session: Last session of Lok Sabha at the end of 5 year term.

14) Tenure of Lok Sabhas of the past

lPresent is 14th Lok Sabha.Details Houses which went through full term, premature etc, given below

1) Lok Sabhas which served the whole tenure of 5 years-Four- 1st, 2nd,3rd(1952-57-62-67),10th(1991-1996)

2)Lok Sabha which were dissolved prematurely due to loss of confidence-Three-, 9th, 11th 12th-PM who lost the confidence for the first time was V.P.Singh

3) Lok Sabha which was dissolved premature for early elections even though it was not defeated---Five—4th, 6th 7th 8th 13 th

4) Lok Sabha which served more than 5 years term- 5th from 1971-1977

PARLIMENTARY COMMITTEES

1.They are constituted by Speaker/Chairman and Members are either appointed or elected. b.Term of Office is normally one year or as mentioned in the Constitution of Committee.

c.Quorumis 1/3rd of total Members. d.Committees are classified into

a.(i)Standing Committees (ii)Ad hoc Committees

b.(i) Common Committees in Both Houses (ii) Joint Committes-Committee containing Members of both Houses (iii) Committee exclusively from Lok Sabha

Following are the important Committees

1.Public Accounts Committee; constituted in 1923 - Consist of 22 Members – 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha – Rajya Sabha Members can not vote. Ministers cannot be Members. From 1967 Member of opposition is Chairman. It has following important functions:

i) Examine Public Accounts of Government of India and report of CAG.

ii)Examine Whether money has been spent as authorized for the purpose. Point out waste- corruption – inefficiency etc.

iii)However it is not concerned with the policy making.

2.Estimate Committee created in 1950 with 30 Members all from Lok Sabha and if Deputy Speaker is Member, he becomes Chairman. Its functionsare

I.What economy, Improvement needed. II.Examine whether money is well laid out within the limit of the policy. III.Suggests alternative policy. IV.Suggests the form in which estimate shall be presented. However it will not prepare the estimate.

3.Committee on Public Undertakings – created in 1963.

On the recommendations of the Krishna Menan –22 Members and 15 from Lok Sabha. Every year 1/5 Members retire. The Chairman from Lok Sabha. It examines report and Accounts of Public Undertakings and considers the report of CAG on Public Undertakings. It also examine whether affairs of Public Undertakings are properly managed.

4.Business Advisory Committee ---- Constituted in both the Houses with 15 Members. Speaker or Chairman act as Ex-Officio Chairman -allocate the business of the house.

5.Committee on Private Members Bill and Resolutions - Lok Sabha Committee with 15 Members and chaired by Deputy Speaker.

6.Committee on Petitions – Separate Committee under both Houses. Ministers cannot become a Member.

7.Committee on Privileges - Separate Committee in both Houses.

8.Committee on Subordinate Legislations. Committee on both Houses. Ministers cannot be Member

9.Committee on Absent of Members from the sitting of House - .Not constituted in Rajya Sabha.

10.Rules Committee – In both Houses – Speaker or Chairman as Ex-officio Chairman.

11.Committee on Welfare of SC/ST – Joint Committee of both Houses with 20 from Lok Sabha and 10 from Rajya Sabha.

12.Committee on Science and Technology - Joint Committee with 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha.

13) COMMITTEE ON EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

On the occasion of International Women's Day on 8th March, 1996, two identical resolutions for constituting a Standing Committee of both the Houses for improving the status of women were moved in the Rajya Sabha and the Lok SabhaThe Committee consist of 30 Members, 20 nominated by the Speaker from amongst the Members of Lok Sabha and 10 nominated by the Chairman, Rajya Sabha from amongst the Members of the Rajya Sabha. A Minister cannot be nominated a Member of the Committee and if a Member after his nomination to the Committee is appointed a Minister, he ceases to be a Member of the Committee from the date of such appointment.

14) COMMITTEE ON MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT LOCAL AREA DEVELOPMENT SCHEME (MPLADS)

The Committee on Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (Lok Sabha), an ad hoc Committee was constituted for the second time on 7 Janaury, 2000 under the discretionary powers of SpeakerA Minister is not eligible to become a Member of the Committee. If a Member after his election to the Committee is appointed a Minister, he ceases to be a Member of the Committee from the date of such appointment. The term of the Committee does not exceed one year. Functions (a) to monitor and review periodically the permormance and problems in implementation of the MPLADS Scheme (Lok Sabha); (b) to consider complaints of memebr sof Lok Sabha in regard to the Scheme; and (c) to perform such other functions in respect of the MPLAD Scheme as may be assigned to it by the Speaker from time to time.

Over all Analysis:

1.Estimate Committee, Private Members Bill and Absent of Members are only from Lok Sabha.

2.PAC, Public Undertakings Committee, SC/ST Committee and Science and Technology Committee are Joint Committees.

3.Business Advisory Committee and Rules Committee are headed by Speaker.4.Ministers cannot be Members in Public Accounts Committee, Committee on Subordinate Legislation and Committee on Petitions, Women Empowerment MPLADS

They can also be classified on performance basis.

1

Finance Committees

PAC, Estimates Committee, Public Undertakings

2

House Committees

Business Advisory, Rules, Pvt Members Bills, Absent of Members

3

Enquiry Committee

Privilege, Petitions

4

Scrutiny Committees

Subordinate Legislation, SC/ST, Papers laid on the Table,

5

DeptRelatedCommittees to scrutinize Demands of various Depts

17 – consist of 30 from Lok Sabha and 15 from Rajya Sabha—6 constituted by Chairman Rajya Sabha and 15 by Speaker.

UNION JUDICIARY

INTRODUCTION

The division of powers between 2 wings is made by a written Constitution, which is the Supreme Law of the Land. Since language of the constitution is not free form ambiguities, its meaning is likely to be interpreted differently by different authorities at different times; it is but natural that disputes might arise between the Centre and its constituent units regarding their respective powers. Therefore, in order to maintain the Supremacy of the Constitution, there must be an independent and impartial authority to decide disputes between the Centre and the States or the States inter se. This function can only be entrusted to a judicial body.

2. Composition: – Originally 7-now 25 (from 1986) + Chief Justice

3.Appointment:Art 124 – Position before case of S.C. Bar Association Vs Union and after – By President – Eligibility – 5 Years Judge in High Court – 0r 10 years as advocate in H.C. – eminent jurist

4.Chief Justice/Seniority: 1)Art 124 executive power of President and he has full discretion 2) Law Commission recommendation 3) Executive to consider mental outlook or the social philosophy of judges. All relevant in todays context.

5.Guidelines of Supreme Court: In appointment and transfer of Judges

(1) Individual initiation of high constitutional functionaries in the matter of Judges appointments reduced to minimum. It gives primacy to Chief Justice of India but puts a rider that he must consult his two colleagues.

(2) Constitutional functionaries must act collectively in judicial appointments.

(3) Chief Justice of India has the final say in transfer of Chief Justice and judges of High Courts.

(4) Transfers of Chief Justices and Judges of High Courts cannot be challenged.

(5)Appointment of the Chief Justice of India by seniority.

(6)No judge can be appointed by the Union Government without consulting the Chief Justice of India.

(7)Fixation of the strength in High Courts is justiciable.

(8)Supreme Court decision in S. P.Gupta v. Union of India, case overruled. The majority judgment of the Supreme Court on the appointment and transfer of the judges have undone the serious injustice, which was done to the judiciary in the S. P.Gupta’s case and restores to it the rightful place for its freedom an independent functioning.

6.Removal of Judge: Procedure – proved misbehavior or incapacity. Judge Ramaswami case 50% total membership present and 2/3 voting.

7.Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court:

(a) Court of Record: Article 129 makes the Supreme Court a court of record and confers all the powers of such court including the power to punish for its contempt. A court of Record is a Court whose records are admitted to be of evidentiary value and they are not to be questioned when they are produced before the Court. Once a court is made a Court of record, its power to punish for contempt necessarily follows from that position. The power to punish for contempt of court has been expressly conferred on the Supreme Court by our Constitution. This extraordinary power must be sparingly exercised only when the public interest demands.

(b) Original Jurisdiction: Article 131 – The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in any dispute: (a) between the Government of India and one or more States; (b) between the Government of India and any state or States on one side and one or more other States on the other; (c) between two or more states – not for treaty or agreement prior to independence and water disputes.

(c) Appellate jurisdiction: The Appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be divided into four main categories:-

(a)Constitutional matters (b) Civil Matters (c) Criminal matters (d) Special leave to appeal – Art.136.

8.Advisory Jurisdiction – Art.143: Two matters – treaty etc. bound – general S.C. not bound.

9.Law declared by Supreme Court-is binding on all the counts–Art 141.

10.S.C. not bound by its own decision-Bengal Immunity case.

The Allahabad Bombay and Karnataka High Courts have held that the Obiter Dicta of the Supreme Court is also “Law” within the meaning of Artr.141 and hence binding on all courts. It can review its own decisions (137).

11.Miscellaneous: (a) Acting Chief Justice to be appointed by President from Supreme Court Judges – 126

(b) Adhoc judges by Chief Justice with previous consent of President C.J. of High Court from Judges of High Court who is qualified Art 127.

(c) Attendance of retired Judges in Supreme Court by C.J. with consent of President – any retired Supreme Court or High Court Judge – Art 128.

(d)Seat of Supreme Court at Delhi or any other – Art 130.

(e) 1 Enlargement of Jurisdiction of Supreme Court and more units of Parliament law – Art 138 & 139.

(f) Transfer of cases from High Court to Supreme Court or between two High Courts by Supreme Court – Art 138 A.

(g)Age of Supreme Court Judge should be determined by such authorities and such manner Parliament may provide –15th amendment.

12.How Independence of Judiciary Maintained:

(1) Security of tenure (2) Salary of Judges fixed, not subject to vote of Legislature (3) Parliament can extend, but cannot curtail the jurisdiction and power of the Supreme Court. (4) No discussion in Legislature on the conduct of the Judges (5) Power to punish for its contempt. (6) Separation of Judiciary from Executive (7) The Executive with the consultation of Legal experts appoints Judges of the Supreme Court. (8) Prohibition on Practice after Retirement.

High Courts in the State:

1.Appointment is made by President after consulting Chief Justice of India and High Court and Governor of the State.

2.He shall have put in 10 years Judicial Office or 10 years practice as Advocate of High Court. Maximum age is 62.

3.After retirement he can practice only in Supreme Court and in other High Courts.

4. Art.222, President can transfer Judges after consulting Chief Justice of India.

5.Art.224 additional – acting judge may be appointed by President for 2 years if there is temporary increase in the business of High Court or by reason of arrears.

6.As per 224 A-retired Judge can be appointed in High Court by Chief Justice of High Court with previous consent of President.

7 226 Writ powers is given – provision of stay without hearing other party 8.Jurisdiction of High Court to Union Territories can be made by Parliament and Parliament can establish one High Court for 2 or more states.

9.As on date 21 High Courts are in existence. Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established in 1862 – Allahabad in 1866 – Karnataka in 1884. Patna in 1916 and Jammu and Kashmir in 1928. Gauhathi, Chandigarh, Bombay High Courts serves 2 or more states. The following High Courts have benches also. Allahabad, Bombay, Calcutta, Guwathi, Jabalpur, Patna and Jodhpur in Rajasthan.

STATE-CENTRAL RELATIONSHIPS- ART 245-263

1) Legislative relations are contained in Art 245-255 and administrative relations are contained in 256-263. Financial aspects and distribution of revenue and finance Commission are contained in Part XII from 264-300 A.

2) Art245 Parliament can make law for whole part of India including extra territorial and State can make law for the whole or part of state.

3) Art 246 Law making power under three lists for union territories-pith and substance-Prafulla Vs Bank of Commerce-Areas where disputes likely to arise-co-op. society-preventive detention, stamp duties, Mines, Essential Commodities.For UT Parliament

b) 247;Parliament to establish addl courts for trying caseds under Union List.

4) Art 248:Residuary powers of legislation:If not in any list Parliament can make law including law imposing a tax not mentioned in either of those List.

5) Art 249 When can Parliament legislate on State List: (1) If Rajya Sabha declares by 2/3 that it is necessary or expedient in the national interest-Parliament can make law (2) Remain in force for 1 year-can be extended by another year through same process (b) During Emergency-ceases on expiry of 6 months after emergency-Art 250. (c) Art 252: Parliament can make for 2 or more States if passed by those States-any amendment to those can be made only by Parliament. (d) Art 251-Inconsistency on Laws made under 249 or 250 – Parliament Act prevails.

(6)Art 253: Legislation to give effect to international agreements or treaty-Parliament.

(7) Art 254:Any inconsistency in State Law with central law only Union Law can prevail-However if any portion is repugnant-can get President’s assent and that will prevail.

(8)Art 255: Requirement of recommendation and –previous sanction not necessary if assent is given.

ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS-ART 256-263

1) Art 256: Executive power of the State to be exercised subject to union laws.Union can give direction.

2) Art 257:State not to impede power of Union-Control of Union over state-3 occasions-general-military-railways.

3) Art 258:President can confer certain powers of Union.

4) Art 258 A: Governor can entrust with concurrence of Union of India State powers.

5) Art 260:Govt. of India by agreement with any other territory exercise all the 3 functions.

6) Art 261: Public acts, records and judicial proceedings shall be given full faith and credit. Final judgments or orders delivered or passed by civil courts can be executed any where in the territory.

7) DISPUTES RELATING TO WATER-ART 262

Parliament by law provide for adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of or in any inter State River or river valley. Parliament may also provide that neither Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint. Inter States Water Disputes Act 1956 is legislation. But the Supreme Court can direct union to fulfill its statutory obligation under sec.4 of Act.

8)COORDINATION BETWEEN STATES-INTER STATE COUNCIL-ART 263

President can if it appears that public interest would be served-Duties of councils. (1) Inquire into and advise upon disputes arisen between States (2) Investigate and discuss subjects in which some or all States or Union have a common interest (3) make any recommendation on any subject for the better coordination of policy and action with respect to that subject. President can establish such a council and to define the nature of the duties to be performed by it and its organization and procedures. Supreme Court can give direction on a writ of mandamus if not constituted – further held interim relief can be granted by council/T.N. Cauvery Sangam Vs Union of India.

Council created in 1990 by President with PM as chairman, all CMs as members and 6 Union Cabinet Ministers. Regularly meet in Delhi- last at Srinagar for the first time

b) Zonal Council- SRC- 5 councils- Union HomeMinister Chasrman

c) NE Council- 1994 constituted

FINANCIAL RELATIONS-PROCEDURES-PART XII 264-300A

Art 265: No tax can be levied except under authority of Law- 75 days provisional collection of tax allowed.

1) Art 266:Consolidated Fund and Public Accounts of Union and States

2) Art 267:Contingency Fund-at the disposal of President or Governor.

3) Art 268 to 272-Distribution of Taxes between States and Centre. Surcharge to Union

(i) Levied by Union but collected and apportioned by States- Stamp duties and excise on medicinal and toilet preparation

268A- Service Tax included under Union List s per 88th amendment.

(ii) Levied by Union but assigned to States-taxes on sale or purchase of goods and taxes ob consignment of goods. under Art 269

(iii) Levied, collected by Union but distributed between both- All taxes levied by Union under Union List other than agricultural income tax 80th amendment.- Art270. Entire surcharge on taxes too Union. As per Art 272 other excise duty may be distributed if Parliament makes law.

4) Agricultural income tax and allied can be presented only with the prior recommendation of President (5) Grants in Aid Art 275- to be determined by Finance commission and allocated by parliament. It is for welfare programmes of SC/ST.- for Administration of areas under Schedule5 and 6. As per Art 273 for jute export duty for assam, Bihar, Orissa abd West bengal (6) Profession Tax-Art 276 (7)Art 280: Finance Commission-to be constituted once in 5 years. Duties of Commission.(1) Distribution of net proceeds of taxes between Union and State (ii) Principles governing grants in aid, (iii) other referred to Commission by President (iv) to augument the consolidated fund of the Stateto supplement the resources of Panchayats and Minicipalities.

281: President to lay FC report before both Houses.

292 and 293- Powers of borrowing by Union and State- condition for State

299- Contracts- In the name of president or governor- but not persoanally liable

300- Suits- only against Union or State- soverign Immunity

300A- Right to property- cannot be deprived except under authority of Law.

ELECTION COMMISSION- Art 324-329 Part XV

Composition:One C.E.C. Tandon-Two members Tr and Gopalaswamy –Naveen Chawla.Art324 empowers appointment of such number of other commrs as decided by President – If more commrs appointed C.E.C. to act as Chairman, Regional Commrs for assembly elections also-Two Addl. Commrs during 16.10.1989 and ended on 1.1.90. Again on 1.10.93 two addl commrs appointed. It is a constitutional body established on 25.1.50.

Appointment and Tenure: By President-6 years or attain 65 years-same status and salary as S.C.Judge-Removal –C.E.C.-like S.C.Judge-other E.C. by President on the recommendation of C.E.C.

Electoral Laws:Representation of the People Act 1950, which mainly deals with preparation and revision of electoral rolls-R.P.Act 1951 – deals in detail all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes. If any election law is silent E.C. has a residuary power to act in appropriate manner.

Powers and Functions: 1) Superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls-and conduct of elections for Parliament-Legislature-President and V.P.

Who can vote:Art 325 and 326-universal adult suffrage-any citizen over the age of 18 years can vote-no discrimination by religion, race, casteor sex. However non-residence, unsoundness of mind, crime or corrupt or illegal practice are disqualifications for registration as voter. Parliament and assemblies given powers under Art 327 and 328 to make laws for certain aspects relating to election.

Election Petitions Art 329: Originally Special Election Tribunals-abolished in 1981 – As per Art 323B can be created but not done-Now High Court can hear.

Reservation:For Lok Sabha 79 seats are for SC and 41 for ST.

.Other Functions: Opinion on disqualification-declaration of result-taking any person for election work on deputation-direction to any candidates-allocation of symbols-recognition of parties- procedures- 6 national parties and 48 Regional parties.upervising elections-election observes-constitution notification.

Deposit: Every candidate has to make a deposit of Rs. 10,000/- for Lok Sabha election and 5,000/- for Rajya Sabha or Vidhan Sabha elections, except for candidates from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who pay half of these amounts. The deposit is returned if the candidate receives more than one-sixth of the total number of valid votes polled in the constituency. Nominations must be supported at least by one registered elector of the constituency, in the case of a candidate sponsored by a registered Party and by ten registered electors from the constituency in the case of other candidates

President: 50 eligible voters to propose and 50 to second- for VP 20 to propose and 20 to second.Deposit Rs15,000- if more than 0ne nomination paper one amount is enough.

PART 16 SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO SC/STs.

1)Art.330 – Reservations for SC/ST in Lok Sabha in proportion to their – Population 2)Art.331 – President can nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian Community to Lok Sabha. 3)Art.332 – Reservation for SC/ST in State Assemblies. 4)Art.333 – Nomination of Anglo Indian in State Assemblies – One Member. 5)Art.334 – Originally reservation was for 20 years. From 1970 it was extended every 10 years. Now it is up to 60 years (2010).

6)Art.335 – Reservation of SC/ST in Promotion under Union or State-consistent with maintenance of efficiency. As per 82nd Amendment cut of marks can be lowered for SC/STs. 7)Art.338 – National Commission for SC/STs. As per Amendment 338A – Commission for STs. was created. 8)Art.340 – President can appoint Commission for Backward Classes. Originally it appointed in 1952, which was Kaka Kalelkar Commission. Second Backward Commission in 1978. Now Ram Surat Sing has recommended enhancement of limit creamy layer to 2.4 lakhs. 9)Art.341. Scheduled Caste – President to notify in consultation with Governor. Any subsequent modification shall be made by Parliament.

10)Art.342 STs - As above.

PART 17 OFFICIAL LANGUAGES

1. It is Hindi in Devnagri script. English can continue up to first 15 years.

2. President to constitu